l1.pdf 1
sdarticle(0).pdf 1
sdarticle(1).pdf 2
sdarticle(2).pdf 11
sdarticle(3).pdf 13
Editor-in-Chief 13
Keith Brown, University of Cambridge, UK 13
sdarticle(4).pdf 14
Coordinating Editors 14
Anne Anderson, University of Glasgow, Scotland 14
Laurie Bauer, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand 14
Margie Berns, Purdue University, USA 14
Keith Brown, University of Cambridge, UK 15
Jim Miller, University of Auckland, New Zealand 15
Graeme Hirst, University of Toronto, Canada 15
sdarticle(5).pdf 17
Editor-in-Chief 1
Keith Brown, University of Cambridge, UK 1
Coordinating Editors 1
Anne Anderson, University of Glasgow, Scotland 1
Laurie Bauer, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand 1
Margie Berns, Purdue University, USA 1
Keith Brown, University of Cambridge, UK 555
Jim Miller, University of Auckland, New Zealand 555
Graeme Hirst, University of Toronto, Canada 555
Section Editors 17
Animal Communication - Marc Naguib, University of Bielefeld, Germany 17
Applied Linguistics - Margie Berns, Purdue University, USA 17
Biographies - Kurt R Jankowsky, Georgetown University, USA 17
Brain and Language - Harry Whitaker, Northern Michigan University, USA 18
Cognitive Science - Jon Oberlander, University of Edinburgh, Scotland 18
Computational Linguistics - Allan Ramsay, University of Manchester, UK 18
Countries and Language - Lutz Marten, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, UK 18
Education and Language - Bernard Spolsky, Bar-llan University, Israel 19
Foundations of Linguistics - Billy Clark, Middlesex University, UK 19
Glossary Editors - Philip Durkin, Oxford English Dictionary, UK 19
Glossary Editors - Kathryn L. Allan, University of Salford, UK 19
Grammatical Semantics - O¨sten Dahl, Stockholm University, Sweden 19
Historical and Comparative Linguistics - Mark Hale, Concordia University, Canada 20
History of Linguistics - Andrew Linn, University of Sheffield, UK 20
Language Acquisition - Elena Lieven, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Germany 20
Languages of the World - Sarah Ogilvie, Oxford University Press, UK 20
Law and Language - Dennis Kurzon, University of Haifa, Israel 21
Law and Language - John Gibbons, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong 21
Lexicography - Patrick Hanks, Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Germany 21
Linguistic Anthropology - Michael Silverstein, University of Chicago, USA 21
Media and Language - Susan McKay, University of Queensland, Australia 22
Medicine and Language - Franc¸oise Salager-Meyer, Universidad de los Andes, Merida, Venezuela 22
Morphology - Laurie Bauer, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand 22
Natural Language Processing & Machine Translation - Graeme Hirst, University of Toronto, Canada 22
Philosophy and Language - Robert J. Stainton, University of Western Ontario,Canada 23
Philosophy and Language - Alex Barber, The Open University, UK 23
Phonetics - John Esling, University of Victoria, Canada 23
Phonology - Richard Wiese, University of Marburg, Germany 24
Politics and Language - Ruth Wodak, University of Lancaster, UK 24
Pragmatics - Jacob L. Mey, University of Southern Denmark, Denmark 24
Psycholinguistics - Anne Anderson, University of Glasgow, Scotland 25
Religion and Language - Erik Fudge, University of Reading, UK 25
Semantics (Logical and Lexical) - Keith Allan, Monash University, Australia 26
Semiotics - Marcel Danesi, University of Toronto, Canada 26
Sign Language - Bencie Woll, University College London, UK 26
Society and Language - Raj Mesthrie, University of Cape Town,South Africa 26
Speech Technology - Jennifer Lai, IBM Research, USA 27
Spoken Discourse - Rosanna Sornicola, Universita` di Napoli Federico II, Italy 27
Syntax - James P. Blevins, University of Cambridge, UK 27
Text Analysis and Stylistics - Catherine Emmott, University of Glasgow, Scotland 28
Translation - Kirsten Malmkjær, Middlesex University, UK 28
Typology and Universals - Bernd Heine, University of Cologne, Germany 28
Variation and Language - Miriam Meyerhoff, University of Edinburgh, Scotland 28
Writing Systems - Peter T. Daniels, Independent Scholar, USA 28
sdarticle(6).pdf 30
sdarticle(7).pdf 31
sdarticle(8).pdf 32
sdarticle(9).pdf 33
sdarticle(10).pdf 35
sdarticle(11).pdf 36
A Priori Knowledge: Linguistic Aspects 36
Bibliography 38
sdarticle(12).pdf 39
A-Morphous Morphology 39
Reasons to Reject the Classical Morpheme 39
Problems in the Relation between Form and Content 40
Problems in the Analysis of Morphological Form 41
The Relation between Morphology and Syntax 42
Implications of Lexicalism for Morphology 42
The Interface between Syntax and Morphology 42
Bibliography 43
sdarticle(13).pdf 45
Aalto, Pentti (1917-1998) 45
Bibliography 46
sdarticle(14).pdf 47
Aasen, Ivar Andreas (1813-1896) 47
Bibliography 48
sdarticle(15).pdf 49
Abduction 49
Bibliography 49
sdarticle(16).pdf 51
Abercrombie, David (1909-1992) 51
Bibliography 52
sdarticle(17).pdf 53
Abkhaz 53
Bibliography 55
sdarticle(18).pdf 56
Abraham, Roy Clive (1890-1963) 56
Bibliography 57
sdarticle(19).pdf 58
Abstraction 58
Bibliography 60
sdarticle(20).pdf 61
Academies: Dictionaries and Standards 61
The Accademia della Crusca and the First Academy Dictionary 61
The French Academy 61
Proposals for an English Academy 62
Academies in the Modern Period 62
Bibliography 62
sdarticle(21).pdf 64
Accent
64
Bibliography 64
sdarticle(22).pdf 65
Accessibility Theory 65
Bibliography 67
sdarticle(23).pdf 69
Acquired Impairments of Written Language 69
Introduction 69
Phylogenetic Observations 69
Writing Systems 69
Reading and Spelling Impairments in Classical Aphasiology 70
Pure Forms of Reading and Writing Disorders 70
Cognitive Models of Reading 71
Dual Route Models of Reading 72
Lexical Analogy Models 72
Reading Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame 72
Phonological or Surface Dyslexia 73
Direct Dyslexia 73
Deep Dyslexia 73
Letter-by-Letter Reading 74
Neglect Dyslexia 74
Diagnosis of Reading Impairments 74
Clinical Neuropsychological Classification of the Spelling Impairments 74
Aphasic Agraphia 74
Alexia with Agraphia 74
Pure Agraphia 74
Apraxic Agraphia 74
Callosal Agraphia 74
Visuospatial (Neglect) Agraphia 75
Cognitive Models of Spelling 75
Spelling Impairments in a Cognitive Neuropsychological Frame 76
Deep Dysgraphia 76
Graphemic Buffer Disorders 76
Peripheral Dysgraphia (Allographic Dysgraphia) 76
Diagnosis of Spelling Impairments 76
Bibliography 76
sdarticle(24).pdf 78
Actantial Theory 78
Bibliography 88
sdarticle(25).pdf 90
Action Sentences and Adverbs 90
Action Sentences 90
Adverbs 91
Bibliography 92
sdarticle(26).pdf 94
Active/Inactive Marking 94
Introduction and Definition 94
Variability in Case Marking 95
The Relation to Unaccusativity 96
Different Semantic Bases 97
Bibliography 97
sdarticle(27).pdf 98
Activity Theory 98
Historical Background 98
Object Orientation 98
Mediation 98
The Socio-Pragmatic Nature of the Sign 99
Overall Structure of Activities 99
Zone of Proximal Development 100
The International Community 100
Bibliography 100
sdarticle(28).pdf 102
Adamawa-Ubangi 102
The Speakers 102
Study of the Group 102
Classification 102
Structural Features 102
Phonetics and Phonology 102
Grammar and Syntax 103
Bibliography 103
sdarticle(29).pdf 104
Adamczewski, Henri (b. 1929) 104
Bibliography 105
sdarticle(30).pdf 106
Adaptability in Human-Computer Interaction 106
Introduction 106
Adaptation and Adaptability 106
Adaptation 106
Computers and Metaphors 106
A Case in Point: The Computer as Prosthesis 107
The Fragmented Body 107
The Effects of Adapting 108
Computer Literacy 108
The Word Processor 108
Why Computer Literacy? 109
Writer and Tool 109
How (Not) to Use a Computer 109
Perspectives and Dangers 110
Mind and Body 110
Mind, Creativity, and Control 110
'Big Brother' and the Mind’s 'Holding Company' 111
Bibliography 111
sdarticle(31).pdf 114
Addressivity 114
Bibliography 116
sdarticle(32).pdf 118
Adelung, Johann Christoph (1732-1806) 118
German Librarian, Lexicographer and Grammarian 118
Bibliography 119
sdarticle(33).pdf 121
Adjectives 121
General 121
Adjectival Morphosyntax 121
Adjectival Semantics 122
Syntactic Usage of Adjectives 123
Bibliography 124
sdarticle(34).pdf 125
Adpositions 125
Bibliography 128
sdarticle(35).pdf 129
Adverbs 129
Introduction 129
Semantic Categories 129
Syntactic Functions 130
Coherence of the Word Class: Defining Criteria 130
Semantics versus Syntax 130
Semantics Complements Syntax: A Prototype Approach 131
Bibliography 132
sdarticle(36).pdf 133
Aegean Scripts 133
Introduction 133
General Characteristics of Open Syllabaries 133
Linear B 135
Decipherment 135
The Syllabary 137
The Cypriot Syllabary 139
Decipherment 140
The Syllabary 140
Anatolian (Luwian) Hieroglyphs 140
Decipherment 142
The Syllabary 142
Bibliography 146
sdarticle(37).pdf 147
Affixation 147
Definition 147
Types of Affix 148
Suffix 148
Prefix 148
Circumfix 149
Infix 149
Suprafix 149
Relative Frequency of Different Types of Affixes 150
Affix Order and Morphological Structure 150
Multiple Synonymous Affixation 151
Diachronic Issues 152
Bibliography 152
sdarticle(38).pdf 153
Afghanistan: Language Situation 153
Main Language Families 153
Minor Indo-European Languages 153
Bibliography 153
sdarticle(39).pdf 155
Africa as a Linguistic Area 155
On Linguistic Areas 155
Earlier Work 155
Pan-African Properties 156
Quantitative Evidence 157
Isopleth Mapping 158
Conclusion 158
Bibliography 158
sdarticle(40).pdf 160
African Lexicography 160
Introduction 160
Scholarly Work Reflecting on Some Lexicographic Activities in Africa 160
Moving Toward Dictionaries for Africa 160
Externally Motivated Lexicographic Endeavors 160
Internally Motivated Lexicographic Endeavors 162
A Stronger Theoretical Base 163
Lexicographic Associations, Institutes, and Publications 163
User Friendliness and a Dictionary Culture 165
In Conclusion 165
Bibliography 165
sdarticle(41).pdf 167
African Linguistics: History 167
Bibliography 167
sdarticle(42).pdf 169
Afrikaans 169
Introduction 169
History 169
Varieties of Afrikaans 169
Formal Features 170
The Taalmonument 171
Afrikaans was Written in Arabic 172
Lexical Borrowings 172
Bibliography 172
sdarticle(43).pdf 174
Afroasiatic Languages 174
Introduction 174
Classification and Geographical Origin 174
History of the Investigation of Afroasiatic Languages 174
Shared Features 175
Bibliography 176
sdarticle(44).pdf 178
Age: Apparent Time and Real Time 178
Bibliography 183
sdarticle(45).pdf 185
Aging and Language 185
Bibliography 187
sdarticle(46).pdf 189
Agrammatism I: Process Approaches 189
Agrammatism in Comprehension 189
The Mapping Hypothesis 190
The Resource Limitation Hypothesis 191
The Timing Hypothesis 191
Agrammatism in Production 192
Variability of Symptoms 193
The Timing Hypothesis 193
The Ellipsis Hypothesis 194
Conclusion 194
Bibliography 195
sdarticle(47).pdf 196
Agrammatism II: Linguistic Approaches 196
Introduction 196
Linguistic Models of Agrammatism 196
Comprehension 196
The Trace-Deletion Hypothesis (TDH) 197
The Double-Dependency Hypothesis (DDH) 197
Production 198
Hagiwara’s Model 198
Friedmann’s Model 198
What Does the Study of Agrammatism Tell Us about Brains or about Language? 198
What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Brains? 198
What Does Evidence Organized by Linguistic Models of Agrammatism Reveal about Language? 199
Conclusion 199
Bibliography 200
sdarticle(48).pdf 202
Agrell, Sigurd (1881-1937) 202
Bibliography 202
sdarticle(49).pdf 203
Aikhenvald, Alexandra (b. 1957) 203
Bibliography 204
sdarticle(50).pdf 205
Ainu 205
Bibliography 207
sdarticle(51).pdf 208
Ajdukiewicz, Kazimierz (1890-1963) 208
Bibliography 210
sdarticle(52).pdf 211
Akan 211
Dialects and Their Distribution 211
History and Development 212
Sociolinguistic Situation 212
Aspects of the Ethnography of Speaking 212
Major Linguistic Features 212
The Sounds of Akan 212
Consonants 212
Vowels and Vowel Harmony 213
Tone 213
Word Formation 213
Nouns 213
Verbs 213
Syntax 213
Word Order 213
Postpositions 213
Serial Constructions 213
Bibliography 214
sdarticle(53).pdf 215
Akkadian 215
Grammatical Sketch 216
Sources 216
Bibliography 216
sdarticle(54).pdf 217
Al-Jurjamacrni, Abd Al-Qamacrhir (10th Century A.D.) 217
Bibliography 217
sdarticle(55).pdf 218
Al-Khalimacrl (8th Century A.D.) 218
Bibliography 218
sdarticle(56).pdf 219
'Al-Zajjamacrjiy, Abu Al-Qasim (10th Century A.D.) 219
Bibliography 219
sdarticle(57).pdf 220
Alarcos Llorach, Emilio (1922-1998) 220
Bibliography 220
sdarticle(58).pdf 222
Alarm Calls 222
Introduction 222
The Evolution of Alarm Calls 222
Alarm Calls Favored by Kin Selection 223
Alarm Calls Favored by Sexual Selection 223
Alarm Calls Favored by Individual Selection 224
The Cognitive Bases of Alarm Calls 226
Alarm Call Structure 227
Alarm Call Usage 227
Alarm Call Comprehension: Conspecific Calls 228
Alarm Call Comprehension: Eavesdropping 229
Conclusions 232
Acknowledgments 232
Bibliography 232
sdarticle(59).pdf 235
Albania: Language Situation 235
sdarticle(60).pdf 236
Albania: Language Situation 236
sdarticle(61).pdf 237
Alcover, Antoni Maria (1862-1932) 237
Bibliography 237
sdarticle(62).pdf 238
Algeria: Language Situation 238
Language Conflict 238
The Arabic Language 238
Tamazight 238
The French Language 239
Conclusion 239
Bibliography 239
Relevant Website 240
sdarticle(63).pdf 241
Algonquian and Ritwan Languages 241
Classification 241
Demography 243
Typological Characteristics 243
Phonology 243
Inflectional Morphology 243
Derivational Morphology 244
Syntax 244
Mixed Languages 245
Philology and Documentation 245
Bibliography 246
sdarticle(64).pdf 247
Alonso, Amado (1896-1952) 247
Bibliography 247
sdarticle(65).pdf 248
Altaic Languages 248
Altaic as 'Ural-Altaic' 248
Altaic as 'Micro-Altaic' 248
The Turkic-Mongolic-Tungusic Relationship 248
Korean and Japanese 249
Bibliography 250
sdarticle(66).pdf 251
Alvar, Manuel (b. 1923) 251
Bibliography 252
sdarticle(67).pdf 253
American Lexicography 253
The Beginnings: Noah Webster 253
The 'Dictionary War' of the Mid-19th Century 255
The Century Dictionary 255
Funk and Wagnall 255
Unabridged and College Dictionaries 256
The Post-Webster’s Third Dictionaries 257
The 1990s: The Emphasis on New Words 259
American Dialect Lexicography 259
Dictionaries of Americanisms 260
Current and Future Trends in American Lexicography 261
Bibliography 262
sdarticle(68).pdf 263
American Linguistics before Whitney 263
Colonial Period to 1812 263
Prescriptivism 263
Divergence 263
American Indian Languages 264
Federal English and Language Study, 1783-1830 265
Antebellum Linguistics 266
American Indian languages 266
Around 1842: Global Linguistic Relativism 269
Bibliography 271
sdarticle(69).pdf 272
Amharic 272
Introductory Remarks 272
Phonology 273
Morphology 274
Syntax 275
Bibliography 275
sdarticle(70).pdf 277
Amman, Johann Conrad (1669-1730) 277
Bibliography 277
sdarticle(71).pdf 279
Analytic Philosophy 279
Frege’s Analysis of Number Statements 279
Russell’s Theory of Descriptions 279
Moore’s Conception of Analysis 280
Wittgenstein’s Tractatus 280
Logical and Metaphysical Analysis 280
Ordinary Language Philosophy 280
Logical Positivism and the Quinean Tradition 281
Analytic Philosophy Today 281
Bibliography 282
sdarticle(72).pdf 283
Analytic/Synthetic, Necessary/Contingent, and a Priori/a Posteriori: Distinction 283
Necessary/Contingent Distinction 283
The a Priori/a Posteriori Distinction 284
Kripke on the Necessary a Posteriori and the Contingent a Priori 286
The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction 286
Metaphysical Analyticity 287
Quine’s Belief-Revisability Argument 287
Frege-Analyticity 288
Quine’s Objections to Frege-Analyticity of the Second Kind 289
Epistemological Analyticity 290
Bibliography 291
sdarticle(73).pdf 293
Anaphora and Coreference Resolution, Statistical 293
Introduction 293
Definition of the Task 293
Data 294
Evaluation 294
Notes on the Development of the Field 295
State-of-the-Art Approaches 295
Decision Trees 295
Maximum Entropy 296
Statistical Modeling 296
Unsupervised and Semisupervised Machine Learning 296
Recent and Future Developments 297
Overcoming Problems with Binary Classification 297
Integrating Linguistic and Extra-Linguistic Knowledge 298
Covering More Linguistic Phenomena 298
Bibliography 298
Relevant Websites 299
sdarticle(74).pdf 300
Anaphora Resolution: Centering Theory Approach 300
Anaphora Resolution with Centers of Attention 300
Centering Theory: Modeling Local Coherence with Centers of Attention 301
Centering Theory and Anaphora Resolution 303
Unspecified Aspects of Centering 304
Applications of Centering Theory as a Model of Local Coherence 306
Bibliography 307
sdarticle(75).pdf 308
Anaphora, Cataphora, Exophora, Logophoricity 308
Defining Anaphora, Cataphora, and Exophora 308
NP-Anaphora 308
The Syntactic Approach 308
The Semantic Approach 309
The Pragmatic Approach 310
VP-Anaphora 311
A Typology of VP-Anaphora 311
VP-Ellipsis: Properties, Issues, and Analyses 311
Properties 311
Issues 311
Analyses 311
Logophoricity 312
Defining Logophoricity 312
Cross-Linguistic Marking of Logophoricity 312
A Typology of Languages with Respect to Logophoricity 313
Some Implicational Universals with Respect to Logophoricity 313
Bibliography 314
sdarticle(76).pdf 315
Anaphora: Philosophical Aspects 315
Bibliography 316
sdarticle(77).pdf 318
Anatomical Asymmetries Versus Variability of Language Areas of the Brain 318
Introduction 318
Individual Variability 318
Overall Brain Volume 318
Gyral Patterns and Regional Variability 319
White Matter Tracts 319
Brain Asymmetries 320
Subcortical Asymmetries 320
White Matter Tract Asymmetries 320
Asymmetry in Nonhumans 321
Conclusions 321
Bibliography 321
sdarticle(78).pdf 323
Anatomical Nomenclature: History 323
A History of Anatomical Nomenclature 323
Classical Period (800 B.C.-200 A.D.) 323
Greek 323
Latin 325
Greco-Roman 325
Middle Period (200-1700 A.D.) 326
Modern Period (1700 A.D.-Present) 328
Bibliography 330
sdarticle(79).pdf 332
Anchieta, José de (1534-1597) 332
Bibliography 332
sdarticle(80).pdf 334
Ancient Egyptian and Coptic 334
Middle Egyptian 335
Late Egyptian 335
Coptic 335
Bibliography 335
sdarticle(81).pdf 336
Ancient Near-Eastern Religions 336
Bibliography 338
sdarticle(82).pdf 339
Andean Languages 339
Bibliography 341
sdarticle(83).pdf 342
Andorra: Language Situation 342
Bibliography 343
sdarticle(84).pdf 344
Angola: Language Situation 344
Languages of Angola 344
Bantu Languages 344
Portuguese 346
Khoisan Languages 346
Languages in Angolan Society 346
Official Status 346
Language Standardization and Formal Education 346
Literature, Press, and Broadcasting 347
The Angolan Language Situation in Change 347
Bibliography 347
Relevant Website 347
sdarticle(85).pdf 348
Anguilla: Language Situation 348
Bibliography 348
sdarticle(86).pdf 349
Animal Communication Networks 349
Receivers in Networks 350
Signalers in Networks 351
Implications of Networks 351
Bibliography 352
sdarticle(87).pdf 353
Animal Communication: Deception and Honest Signaling 353
The Problem 353
No Conflict between Sender and Receiver 353
Potential Conflicts of Interest between Signaler and Receiver 354
Deception and Tactical Deception 355
Signaling in Communication Networks 355
A New Element: Costs to the Receiver to Evaluate Signal Information 355
Bibliography 356
sdarticle(88).pdf 357
Animal Communication: Dialogues 357
Bibliography 358
sdarticle(89).pdf 360
Animal Communication: Long-Distance Signaling 360
Constrained by the Environment 360
Shaped by the Environment 361
Exploiting the Environment 362
Long-Distance Communication in Humans 362
Acknowledgment 363
Bibliography 363
sdarticle(90).pdf 365
Animal Communication: Overview 365
Definitions 366
What Is Communicated 366
Sensory Modalities 366
Acoustic Communication 367
Visual Communication 368
Olfactory Communication 369
Cognition and Communication 369
Cooperation and Deception in Communication 370
Costs and Benefits of Signaling 370
Functions of Signals 370
Mating Signals 371
Communication for Defending Resources 371
Responses to Predators: Alarm and Mobbing Calls 371
Studying Animal Communication 372
Comparison to Human Language 372
Bibliography 373
sdarticle(91).pdf 374
Animal Communication: Parent-Offspring 374
Signaling for Parent-Offspring Recognition 375
Communication in Brood Care Transactions 376
Offering Strategies 376
Begging Strategies 377
Bibliography 377
sdarticle(92).pdf 379
Animal Communication: Signal Detection 379
Introduction 379
Principles of Signal Detection 379
Applications to Animal Communication 380
Implications for the Evolution of Communication 380
Adaptive Gullibility and Fastidiousness 381
Bibliography 381
sdarticle(93).pdf 383
Animal Communication: Vocal Learning 383
Bibliography 386
sdarticle(94).pdf 387
Annadurai Conjeevaram (1909-1969) 387
Bibliography 387
sdarticle(95).pdf 389
Antarctica: Language Situation 389
sdarticle(96).pdf 390
Anthropological Linguistics: Overview 390
Introduction 390
History of Anthropological Linguistics 390
Main Currents of Anthropological Linguistics 391
Tasks of Anthropological Linguists 392
Wider Concerns of Anthropological Linguistics 394
Bibliography 397
sdarticle(97).pdf 399
Anthropology and Pragmatics 399
Introduction 399
The Semantic Tradition 399
The Social-Scientific Tradition of Pragmatics 401
Pragmatics, Pragmati(ci)sm, and the Social Semiotics of Praxis 402
The Genealogy of Linguistic Anthropology: The Boasian Cosmographic Tradition 403
Bibliography 406
sdarticle(98).pdf 408
Anthroposemiotics 408
Bibliography 409
sdarticle(99).pdf 410
Antigua and Barbuda: Language Situation 410
Bibliography 410
sdarticle(100).pdf 411
Antonymy and Incompatibility 411
Incompatibility and Contrast 411
Antonymy and Opposition 411
Gradable Contrariety (Classical Antonymy, Polar Opposition) 411
Complementarity (Contradiction) 411
Directional Antonyms 412
Other Types of Opposition 412
Research Issues 412
Contrast and Lexical Development 412
A Lexical Relation? 412
Discourse Functions and Constructions 413
Defining Antonymy 413
Bibliography 413
sdarticle(101).pdf 415
Apes: Gesture Communication 415
Acquisition and Transmission 415
Flexibility 415
Audience Effects 416
Pointing 416
Sign Language 417
Summary 417
Bibliography 418
sdarticle(102).pdf 420
Aphasia Syndromes 420
Broca’s Aphasia 421
Wernicke’s Aphasia 421
Conduction Aphasia 422
Anomia 422
Alexia with Agraphia 423
The Transcortical Aphasias 423
Transcortical Sensory Aphasia 423
Transcortical Motor Aphasia 423
Mixed Transcortical Aphasia 424
Auditory Agnosia 424
Agraphia 424
Alexia (Dyslexia) 424
Bibliography 425
sdarticle(103).pdf 427
Apollonius Dyscolus and Herodian 427
Lives 427
Works 427
Method 427
Influence 428
Bibliography 428
sdarticle(104).pdf 430
Applicational Grammar 430
Background 430
The Properties of Applicational Grammar 430
The Basic Units 430
Derivations 431
Different Levels of Category 431
Relators: Derivational Morphology and Syntactic Function 431
Other Primitives in the Relator Calculus 432
Sentences and Transformational Fields 432
Transformational Fields 432
Genotype and Phenotype Grammars 432
The Later Model 433
A Critique of Applicational Grammar 433
Bibliography 434
sdarticle(105).pdf 435
Applied Forensic Linguistics 435
Bibliography 437
sdarticle(106).pdf 439
Applied Linguistics in Africa 439
Multilingualism and the Role of the Excolonial Languages 439
Language Development: Some African Initiatives 440
Translation and Interpretation 440
Language Learning and Teaching 441
Language Learning and Teaching: African Languages 441
Academic Literacy Development in Higher Education 442
Literacy 442
Reading Levels and Literacy Measures 443
Adult Literacy 443
Early Literacy Development 443
Enliteration: Challenges and Responses 443
Conclusion 444
Bibliography 444
sdarticle(107).pdf 446
Applied Linguistics in Australasia and the Pacific 446
The Domain of Applied Linguistics in the Region 446
The World of Australasia and the Pacific 447
The World of Applied Linguistics in the Region 447
Language in Education 447
Literacy 448
Mother Tongue Education 449
Language Teacher Preparation and Professional Development 450
Languages for Specific Purposes 450
Additional Language Education 450
Language in the Workplace 451
Language in Social Life 451
Translation and Interpretation 451
Language Assessment 451
Language Planning and Policy 451
Bibliography 452
Relevant Websites 453
sdarticle(108).pdf 454
Applied Linguistics in China 454
Introduction 454
Historical Background 454
Modern Linguistics in China 455
Linguistics Applied and Applied Linguistics in Contemporary China 455
Applied Linguistics and the Chinese Language 456
Applied Linguistics and Minority Languages 456
Applied Linguistics and Foreign Language Teaching 457
Conclusion 459
Bibliography 459
sdarticle(109).pdf 461
Applied Linguistics in Europe 461
Language Planning and Policy 461
Language in the European Union 462
An Early Start for Foreign Languages 462
The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) 462
The Choice of Languages in the EU 463
Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism 463
The Position of English and Other Languages in Europe 463
From Bilingualism to Multilingualism 464
Sociolinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism 464
SLA and Migration 464
Languages in Contact 464
Maintenance and Loss of Minority Languages 465
Regionalization 465
Psycholinguistic Aspects of Multilingualism 465
Language Attrition 466
Final Remarks 466
Bibliography 466
sdarticle(110).pdf 468
Applied Linguistics in North America 468
A Brief History of Applied Linguistics in North America 468
Defining and Delimiting Applied Linguistics 469
Research in Applied Linguistics in North America 470
Second Language Acquisition 470
L2 Reading and Writing Research 470
Language Learning and Teaching 471
Second Language Teaching (and English for Academic Purposes) 471
Foreign Language Teaching 471
Bilingual and Language Minority Education 471
Instructional Approaches 471
Language Assessment 472
Language Policy and Planning 472
Societal Bilingualism and Language Contact 472
Language Use in Professional Contexts 472
Corpus Linguistics 473
Critical Perspectives in Applied Linguistics 473
New Trends in Applied Linguistics in North America 473
Bibliography 474
sdarticle(111).pdf 475
Applied Linguistics in South America 475
Some Publications in South America 475
Four Publications outside South America 476
The Path of Applied Linguistics in South America: The Shadow Metaphor 477
Final Remarks 478
Bibliography 479
Relevant Websites 480
sdarticle(112).pdf 481
Applied Linguistics in South Asia 481
Introduction 481
Applied Linguistics in the Subcontinent 482
Multilingualism and Language-Related Concerns 482
Language Policies: Scheduled and Nonscheduled Languages 483
Language and Education 483
Language and Educational Policy 483
Role of English in Multilingual South Asia 484
Language Teaching in South Asia 484
Research Related to Language Learning and Acquisition 485
Languages in Contact 485
Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature 486
Computational Linguistics 487
Machine Translation 487
Lexical Resources 488
Language Disorders 488
Problems in Translation 489
Conclusion 489
Bibliography 490
sdarticle(113).pdf 492
Applied Linguistics in Southeast Asia 492
Applied Linguistics and the Region of Southeast Asia: Definitions 492
Southeast Asia as a Linguistic Region 493
From Nationalism to Nationism: The Adoption of National Languages 493
Language Acquisition Planning in Multilingual Societies 495
Language use in Multilingual Settings and the Question of Social Identity 495
English: Its Expanding Role and Varieties 496
English Language Teaching and Learning 497
Bilingualism in Multilingual Societies 499
Publications on Applied Linguistics in Southeast Asia 499
Bibliography 500
sdarticle(114).pdf 501
Applied Linguistics: Overview and History 501
Introduction 501
Overview 501
Linguistics and Applied Linguistics 502
Interdisciplinarity and Applied Linguistics 502
Approaches to Making Knowledge 503
History 504
Applied Linguistics in Ancient Times 504
The European Origins of Early Applied Linguistics 504
Early Applied Linguistics in the United States 505
The Growth of Applied Linguistics 506
Applied Linguistics Today 508
New Directions 509
Critical Applied Linguistics 510
Corpus Analysis 510
Languages of Wider Communication 510
A Disciplinary Challenge 510
Bibliography 511
sdarticle(115).pdf 513
Applied Voice Input and Output Society 513
Bibliography 513
sdarticle(116).pdf 514
Applying Pragmatics 514
Levels of Application: Micro- and Macro-processes 514
Domains of Application: Micro- and Macro-pragmatics 514
Applying Pragmatics and the Language User 515
Applying Pragmatics and the Social Struggle 516
Bibliography 516
Relevant Websites 517
sdarticle(117).pdf 518
Approaches to Translation, Linguistic 518
Introduction 518
Catford 518
Importance 518
Detail 519
Nida 520
Importance 520
Detail 520
Developments 522
Gutt 522
Halverson 523
Using Data and Theoretical Insights from Linguistics in Descriptive Translation Studies 523
Bibliography 524
sdarticle(118).pdf 526
Approaches to Translation: Relevance Theory 526
Main Characteristics 526
Initial Approach 526
Translation as Interpretive Use 526
Criticisms 528
Further Developments 528
Translation as Metarepresenational Use 528
Translation as a Higher-Order Act of Communication 529
Bibliography 529
sdarticle(119).pdf 531
Apraxia, Handedness and Language Laterality 531
Introduction 531
Definition 531
Testing for Apraxia 532
Subtypes of Apraxia 532
Prevalence 532
Cerebral Dominance for Motor Learning 533
Dissociation of Language and Praxis 533
Anatomical Correlates 533
Bibliography 534
sdarticle(120).pdf 535
Arabic 535
History of the Language 535
The Present Situation 536
Modern Standard Arabic 536
Arabic Dialects 536
Structure of Arabic 537
Phonology 537
Phonology of the Dialects 537
Morphology 538
Derivational Morphology 538
Noun Inflection 538
Pronouns 539
Verb Inflection 539
Morphology of the Dialects 540
Syntax 540
Tense
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